Crossdating Enhancement: is a technique that ensures each individual tree ring is assigned its exact year of formation. During years of limited growth (for example, during a drought or as a result of falling ash), a tree will not always form a ring completely around its trunk. If a core is collected from a tree where one or more rings are missing, the age of the tree or the dates of the volcanically induced narrow ring sequence will be too young. Missing rings can be detected by matching the ring-width variation patterns of sampled trees with the ring patterns of other trees growing nearby. (http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/About/What/Assess/MSH-1482.html) Lacey L

Dendrochronology: (AarenS)

From the latin words;
Dendros: Using trees (or the growth rings of trees in this case).
Chronos: Time, or in the case of dendrochronology events in past time.
Ology: The study of.

Dendrochronology is the study of using the growth rings (annular rings) of the cross section of a tree to determine many different events and environmental conditions which occurred or were present during the life of the tree. Information obtainable includes but is not limited to insect outbreaks, past fires, forest stand structures, and climate. Each annular ring represents a year in the life of the tree, and certain physiological responses taken by the tree (poor growth during droughts) as well as physical occurrences (signs of a fire) can be noted. The annular rings of trees that grew in proximity to currently living trees can also be aligned to give information which in some cases spans back thousands of years and has even been conducted with art objects and furniture. (http://www.ltrr.arizona.edu/skeletonplot/introcrossdate.htm) (http://web.utk.edu/~grissino/ltrs/) http://sokl.joensuu.fi/saima/saimapictures/kiekkoisov.jpg

Dendroclimatology - the study of the relationships between climate and tree-growth parameters and their use in the reconstruction of past climates. (www.cru.uea.ac.uk/cru/annrep94/trees/) The study of tree rings to infer past climatic conditions, based on recent growth-climate relations. For example, you may find that over the past 50 years (for which there are very good climate data) that there is a relationship between rainfall and tree-ring width. Thus, if you study a 400-year-old tree and find narrow rings early in its growth, there may likely have been a drought during that time period. (www.plantbio.ohiou.edu/dendro/dendroclime) Mark Haywood-Farmer Dendroclimatology enhancement: The growth of a tree is the result of many complex factors and interrelated biochemical processes. There exsists a relationship between localised conditions and large scale climactic parameters. Growth may be effected by sunshine, precipitation, temperature, wind speed, and humidity in addition to the non-climactic factors like competition, defoliators and soil nutrients.

Eastern White Cedar: Thuja occidentalis, a species of thuja, is an evergreen coniferous tree in the cypress family Cupressaceae, native to the north-eastern United States and south-eastern Canada from central Saskatchewan east to New Brunswick, and south to eastern Tennessee in the Appalachian Mountains.

Unlike the closely related western red cedar, it is only a small tree, to 10-20 m tall and 0.4 m trunk diameter (exceptionally to 30 m tall and 1.6 m diameter). The bark is red-brown, furrowed and peels in narrow, longitudinal strips. The foliage forms in flat sprays with scale-like leaves 3-5 mm long. The cones are slender, yellow-green ripening brown, 10-15 mm long and 4-5 mm broad, with 6-8 overlapping scales. It grows naturally in wet forests, being particularly abundant in swamps where other larger and faster-growing trees cannot compete successfully. It also occurs on other sites with reduced tree competition such as cliffs.
Ref:
-Conifer Specialist Group (1998). Thuja occidentalis. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 12 May 2006.
-Gymnosperm Database: Thuja occidentalis (http://www.conifers.org/cu/th/occidentalis.htm)
Scott Horley.

False ring: (AarenS) An annular growth ring that does not represent a full season of growth and does not always form a complete ring on the cross-section of a tree. False rings can appear as bands of what appear to be latewood, followed by earlywood, followed by true latewood all within the boundaries of a true ring. The cause for this is not always understood, and trees with false rings cannot always be used in dendrochronology.
(http://www.yale.edu/fes519b/saltonstall/trchallenge.htm)
(http://www.answers.com/topic/false-ring?cat=technology)


Image from (http://www.ltrr.arizona.edu/skeletonplot/ringanomalies.htm) shows an example of a false ring.

Krummholz: Krummholz is also defined as treelines or timberlines. As elevation increases, the height of the tree gradually decreases while the spacing between them increases until a point is finally reached where the trees give way to tundra (Britanica Online Encyclopedia) . And therefore, trees grow stuntedly caused by wind. It is found in certain tree species at their upper limit of distribution. In cushion krummholz, Alpine trees exposed to severe wind conditions are wind-pruned to a cushion-like mat (Ariadne's Forest Glossary ). Tamiki N


Web citation: http://www.dred.state.nh.us/divisions/forestandlands/bureaus/naturalheritage/Mt.Cardigan.htm Enhancement (krummholz): A forest of stunted trees near the timber line on a mountain; they can also be called elfinwood (Dictionary.com). Krummholz is German for “twisted wood”, which refers to the more-or-less horizontal growth of trees at wind-swept alpine treeline sites. The twisted horizontal growth occurs when the normally upright tree tip or leader is blasted by wind-driven ice crystals during the winter (Kenai National Wildlife Refuge, “Ancient bent trees at treeline are straightening up, tell of climate change”, Article by Ed Berg). Tessa J

Layering- A form of asexual reproduction, capable by select species such as cedar. Attached branches which are covered in soil can root and survive independently. (Silvic of North America, Burns & Honkala, p 639) Kirsten

Enhancement: Layering it produces adventitious roots and this has the advantage that the propagated portion can continue to receive water and nutrients from the parent plant while it is forming roots.. At a later stage the connection with the parent plant is severed and a new plantet is produced as a result.
Layering is also utilised by horticulturists to propagate desirable plants.
Ref:
Britannica Online
(http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-34645/horticulture)
Wikipedia
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layering)


sometimes layering is used in horticulture to grow more trees
(A) Pull branch down for simple layer.
(B) Make wound or cut at bend.(so roots can grow)
(C) Stake tip to hold upright.
extension.missouri.edu/.../hort/g06970.htm
VanessaV
Niagara Escarpment: A long escarpment (a transition zone between different physiogeographic provinces) in the United States and Canada that runs westward from New York State, through Ontario, Michigan, Wisconsin and Illinois. It is composed of the Lockport geological formation of Silurian age(about 443 to 416 million years ago). The escarpment is most famous as the cliff over which the Niagara River plunges to form Niagara Falls, for which it is named and is the most prominent of several escarpments formed in the bedrock of the Great Lakes.

Image: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Niagara_Escarpment_in_Red.png
Ref:
- Niagara Escarpment Commission (http://www.escarpment.org/)
- Steven Dutch University of Wisconsin (http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/geolwisc/niagesc.htm)
Scott Horley. Niagara Escarpment Enhancement: The Niagara Escarpment may be the only forest ecosystem with millenium-aged trees. These trees consist of ancient estern white cedars thuja occidentalis. There has been no structured investigation into the location and ages of the oldest trees. Currently, recreational activities pose a threat to the trees of the escarpment area. The escarpment formed during the Ordocian and Silurian periods (420 -445 million years BC) and are compised of limestones, dolostones, shales, and sandstones.

Sensitive Tree: Is a tree which is growing in a spot with low water and nutrients, like the side of a hill. It will be more affected by drought than a complacent tree which grows in a spot with lots of water and nutrients. Its tree rings will be more varied with yearly growth. It would be possible to tell which years had lots of rain and which years drought occurred. ( AGU http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2003/2002GL016154.shtml), (URegina http://uregina.ca/~sauchyn/geog411/dendrochronology.html) Nick N
Subalpine Larch: (Mallory Hazell) Also known as the Alpine Larch. A medium sized coniferous tree that is native to northwestern North America. It belongs to the family Pinaceae and its scientific name is Larix lyallii Parl. It is closely related to Larix occidentalis. which is the Western Larch. The Subalpine Larch grows at high elevations above 1500m in the Rocky Mountains. It grows well in acidic or gravelly soils and has irregular form and densely hairy twigs.
references: (Trees in Canada. pg. 72) ( http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/subalpine%20larch)



Note the clusters of needles and how the cones are attached directly to the branch. These are two main characteristics in identifying the Sub-Alpine Larch. It’s distribution range is fairly limited with populations mainly in remote demanding environments. The high mountains of the inland Pacific Northwest, namely the Rocky Mountains and the Cascades, are ideal locations for Sub-Alpine Larch growth.
Images found on Oct 22, 2007 from http://www.nearctica.com/trees/conifer/tsuga/Llyal.htm
(Ryan T)

Subalpine Larch, Enhancement Subalpine Larch Larix lyallii is a deciduous coniferous that grows 10 – 25 m tall producing tough timber. The trunk is sturdy, short and straight, to 30 – 60 cm in diameter. Larix lyallii is distinguished from the lower elevation Western Larch Larix oxidentalis by the wooly hairs that cover its buds, young twigs and lower cone scales. Its needles are square in cross-section rather than triangular as in western larch. Larix lyallii often grows on sites that are too cold for most trees (Plants of Southern Interior British Columbia, Parish, pg. 33)(Oxford English Dictionary).

Enhancement: Most subalpine larch that are larger than about 30 sm in diameter have extensive heart rot. However, if 50- year average radial increments are plotted for individual trees, against date, reasonably horizontal lines result. (Worrall, J. "Subalpine Larch: Oldest Tree in Canada?." Faculty of Forestry, UBC.) htese results show that despite the rotted centers of trees, we can estimate the width of the growth rings within these trees and then get a rough estimate of the age of these trees. If we do so, we find that Subalpine Larch could be the oldest trees in Canada. Mark Haywood-Farmer

Yellow Cedar - A medium-sized tree, up to 24 metres tall and 90 centimetres in diameter; has a broad, grooved trunk that spreads out widely at the base. The crown is sharply cone-shaped, with branches that spread out and droop, and have small, loosely hanging branchlets. (Government of B.C., Ministry of Forests and Range- www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/treebook). This species goes by many common names including Nootka Cypress, Yellow Cypress, and Alaska Cypress. Even though it is not a cedar, it is also often confusingly called "Nootka Cedar", "Yellow Cedar", "Alaska Cedar", or even "Alaska Yellow Cedar". (Gadek, P. A., Alpers Relationships within Cupressaceae sensu lato: a combined morphological and molecular approach. American Journal of Botany 87)
(world's largest Yellow Cedar, Sayward, BC)
-Mark Dinicol

Ehancement: Yellow cedar trees grow on the west coast of British Columbia and prefer wet, deep, and acidic soils. (BC Adventue: http://www.bcadventure.com/adventure/wilderness/forest/yelcedar.htm) Katherine Loewen
Enhancement: Yellow cedar is also found in a small area in Valhalla Provincial Park. This area is an ecological reserve and is one of the only areas where yellow cedar is found in the interior of British Columbia (Valhalla Provincial Park Management Plan 2004).
Evans Creek in Valhalla Provincial Park. Photo by Morgan Traverse -Morgan Traverse

COMPARE AND CONTRAST
Please put your compare and contrast entries below here; first word alphabetical

Complacent / Crossdating: A complacent tree is a tree that shows very little differentiation between the growth rings despite what is occurring in the environment surrounding the tree. Crossdating is the process of matching up tree rings by matching different events that happened in the trees history such as a drought, fire, a breakout of some kind of tree disease and etc. What happens is you match up these events and you keep going back in time until you have a timeline for dating a tree part that you find due to different disturbances that the tree has seen. A complacent tree will make it very hard to crossdate anything because the disturbances do not show up in the tree rings.

An illustration of the crossdating of the matching of three cores.

A complacent set of tree rings.
http://web.utk.edu/~grissino/principles.htm (Ultimate Tree Ring Page), http;//www.dendro.cornell.edu/svn/corina/trunk/Manual/DocBook/5-Crossdating.chap (Cornell), Liz Foster



Cross-dating/Dendroclimatology Dendroclimatology is the science that uses tree rings to study present climate and past climate. Cross dating is the matching of tree rings to create a timeline, by doing this you can date old structures or the date of when there was a sudden change in climate. By using cross dating you can determine the conditions for tree growth hundreds of years ago, and the climate of that time. (http://www.ltrr.arizona.edu/lorim/basic.html), (http://web.utk.edu/~grissino/principles.htm) Nick N

Crossdating/ False Ring
Crossdating: matching the patterns of different sized rings in the wood of one tree and comparing them to rings in another tree. This technique assigns an exact year each individual tree ring was formed. This information can then be used to date certain things. An example would be taking a sample of wood from a house built a long time ago and crossdating the wood to see exact how old the house really is. (http://www.ltrr.arizona.edu/lorim/basic.html)

False Ring: An annular growth ring that does not represent a full season of growth and does not always form a complete ring on the cross-section of a tree. False rings can appear as bands of what appear to be latewood, followed by earlywood, followed by true latewood all within the boundaries of a true ring. The cause for this is not always understood, and trees with false rings cannot always be used in dendrochronology. (http://www.yale.edu/fes519b/saltonstall/trchallenge.htm)

Crossdating is the use of rings to match the ages of two different trees, false rings often interfere with the pattern of rings in a given tree, and make this tree unusable in dendrochronology and crossdating.
Mark Haywood-Farmer

Dendrochronology/ False Ring: A false ring is a ring of growth in a tree that does not display a full year of growth and often does not display a full year of growth. These false rings are due to significant stress during the growing season. These false rings can appear to be true tree rings and this makes it difficult to use trees with false rings in crossdating. False rings are bands of what appears to be latewood followed by early wood and then followed by the real latewood, all within a true growth ring. Dendrochronology is the study of dating a wooden object by its growth rings. These growth rings are influenced by many of the events in the trees life and are distinctive. This is one of the most reliable ways to date an object. The false rings of a tree will make it really hard to use dendrochronology to date an object because the false rings appear to be true growth rings. A picture of a good tree to use for dendrochronology dating. Liz Foster http://www.yale.edu/fes519b/saltonstall/trchallenge.htm (Yale), http://www.livius.org/de-dh/dendrochronology/dendrochronology.html (Livius), http://www.answers.com/topic/false-ring?cat=technology (Answers).

Dendrochronology/ Dendroclimatology
Dendrochronology: the study of using the growth rings (annular rings) of the cross section of a tree to determine many different events and environmental conditions which occurred or were present during the life of the tree.(http://www.ltrr.arizona.edu/skeletonplot/introcrossdate.htm) Dendroclimatology: the study of the relationships between climate and tree-growth parameters and their use in the reconstruction of past climates. (www.cru.uea.ac.uk/cru/annrep94/trees/)

Both dendrochronolgy and dendroclimatology are studies about the past using tree gowth rings, however, dendrochronology studies events that occured that directly effected the tree itself such as fires, where dendroclimatology studies how the growth rings may have been effected by the climate in the area at the time when the tree was growing. Dendroclimatology uses this information to predict how climate has changed in an area over time.
Mark Haywood-Farmer

Dendrochronolgy/Crossdating Dendrochronology is the study of annual tree rings to determine past dates and the chronological placement of past happenings. This can be used to determine such events as historical forest fires, infestations, climate, and much more. Crossdating is using several segements of different trees and matching them up to form a long chain of rings back or forward in time. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/dendrochronology http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/saf/00221201/v39n10/s6.pdf?expires=1193194920&id=40184233&titleid=3830&accname=Thompson+Rivers+University&checksum=5DB61C101C816158007CE06A0FE18478 -- John
Paleobotany/Dendrochronology By Caitlin Deas
Both paleobotany and dendrochronology use ancient plant structures to determine past events. Paleobotany uses fossilized plants, carbon-dating them to determine when these plants lived. This information can be used to deduce what type of plants and animals lived at that time, and therefore what different things happened (such as the plant species supported a herbivore population which in turn supported a human population). Dendrochronology uses tree rings (from dead or alive trees) to determine the time that historical events occurred. Taking a core sample and analyzing it, without adversely affecting the tree, can date a living tree. Tree rings grow at a known rate, so they are a good measurement of time when compared to a structure or artifact that they are near or in. For instance, the number of tree rings added to a tree after a name is carved into the trunk tells us how long ago the name was carved. Pictures below. (Biology of Plants, 7th edition, Peter H. Raven, 9, 596; http://dendro.cornell.edu/whatisdendro.php)


Dendrochronology (Caitlin) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tree.ring.arp.jpg


Paleobotany (Caitlin) http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/IB181/VPL/Pres/PresP/Pres2.jpeg

Krummolz/Sub Alpine larch
Krummolz- Also known as treelines or timberline. It is the basic concept that as elevation increases the heights of the trees decrease. The spaces between the trees also increase until a point is reached and the tundra takes over. Krummholz is also defined as treelines or timberlines. (Ariadne's Forest Glossary ).
Sub Alpine Larch- The Subalpine Larch grows at high elevations above 1500m. It grows well in acidic or gravelly soils.(Trees in Canada. pg. 72)Subalpine Larch is a deciduous coniferous that grows 10 – 25 m tall. The trunk is sturdy, short and straight, to 30 – 60 cm in diameter. Sub Alpine Larch often grows on sites that are too cold for most trees (Plants of Southern Interior British Columbia, Parish, pg. 33) In comparing these two, one is able to note the effects both have on one another. It shows that the larch is affected by Krummolz and is only able to grow up to a certain elevation.

Sensitive/complacent trees (Daniel Struthers):Tree ring Growth of sensitive trees has many variables, while complacent trees have little variation in tree ring thickness from year to year. The growth of the tree rings depends on the conditions of the environment and how the tree species copes with it. (Science and Technology in Historic Preservation, Ray A. Williamson, Paul R. Nickens, Pg.91)
Sensitive tree growth includes High degree of annual variation, wide and narrow rings intermixed through time, limiting growth factor (e.g., rainfall) is highly variable year to year, sensitive ring growth can be easy to crossdate. Complacent tree growth includes low degree of annual variation, rings are roughly the same for many consecutive years, limiting growth factor is not variable from year to year, and complacent ring growth can be difficult to crossdate.
(University of Arizona:http://tree.ltrr.arizona.edu/skeletonplot/sensitivitycomplacency.htm )

Subalpine Larch/ Bristlecone Pine
Bristlecone Pine: A long lived, slow growing tree native to Western United States. It belongs to the family Pinaceae and its scientific name is Pinus aristata Englem. var. It has irregular form and is often used for landscape purposes. Needles in bundles of 5 with a bluish-white color from resin. Bristlecone Pine can be up to 5000 years old.
References: (Trees in Canada. pg. 51) (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bristlecone%20pine)
Subalpine Larch: A medium sized coniferous tree that is native to northwestern North America. It belongs to the family Pinaceae and its scientific name is Larix lyallii Parl. It is closely related to Larix occidentalis. which is the Western Larch. The Subalpine Larch grows at high elevations above 1500m in the Rocky Mountains. It grows well in acidic or gravelly soils and has irregular form and densely hairy twigs.
references: (Trees in Canada. pg. 72) ( http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/subalpine%20larch)
Both trees are members of the family Pinaceae. They are slowing growing trees found in higher elevations. The Bristlecone Pine has 5 needles per bundle while the Subalpine Larch has as many as 30-40 needles per bundle. The cones are also distinctively different as the Bristlecone Pine has shiny smooth cone scales while the Subalpine Larch has rougher, bristle-tipped scales. (Matti Harper)

Yellow Cedar and Eastern white Cedar Eastern White-Cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatesis): Eastern white-cedars have dull yellowish-green and 1-2mm long scale-like leaves. Twigs are stiff, flattened and covered by yellowish-green leaves. Seed cones are oval shape and leathery scales. Barks are shiny reddish-brown when young, separating into long, narrow, flat gray strip as matured. Eastern white-cedars are small trees which generally grow up to 15 m high and 30 cm in diameter. Trunks are tapering rapidly and often leaning. Roots are shallow and wide spread. Their distribution is south east Canada and north east states.
Yellow Cedar/ Western Red Cedar
The yellow cedars scale-like leaves resemble those of western red cedar, but the scales are all alike, so the leaf-covered twigs appear 4-sided rather than flat. Yellow cedar have rounded cones as opposed to ellictical cones like the western red cedar(Plants of Southern Interior British Columbia, Parish, pg. 48).


Yellow Cedar (Thuja occidentalis L.): Yellow cedars have ever-green; small, dull bluish-green and up to 3mm long leaves. Twigs are very flexible, slightly flattened and green to reddish-brown along stem. Seed cones are berry-like and soft. Barks are thin, scaly grayish-brown when young, separating into narrow intersecting ridges as matured. Yellow cedars are medium-sized tree which grow up to 25 m high and 90 cm in diameter. Trunks are tapered associated with broadly buttressed and fluted base. Roots are shall to deep. Their distribution is along west coastal British Columbia.

Distinctive differences between yellow cedar and eastern white-cedar are their size, seed cone shape and especially their distribution. Moreover, yellow cedars have buds, whereas eastern white-cedars do not. Tamiki N


Yellow Cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis). This is an example of the yellow cedar. (www.ac.wwu.edu/.../yellowcedar.jpg) Matti Harper


Enhancement: By Conyr A.

This is an image of a western red cedar (Thuja Plicata) branch (image from The Forestry Commission of Great Britain webpage at the address http://www.forestry.gov.uk/images/Western-red-cedar.jpg/$FILE/Western-red-cedar.jpg)


Bristlecone Pine: Small slow-growing, soft pine found in Western coastal areas. Its scientific name is Pinus aristata. It is one of the oldest living trees known and can grow on poor dry soils. It is planted for landscape purposes and can grow from 6 to 12 meters tall (Trees of Canada, Farrar, pg 51, Textbook of Dendrology, Harlow and Harrar, pg 120). Yellow Cedar: : A western species, occurring mainly near the Pacific coast. It is planted for landscape purposes because of the attractive crown with long sweeping principal branches and drooping secondary branches. It belongs to the family Cypressaceae and its scientific name is Chamaecyparis nootkatensis. Its leaves are scale-like and have a dull bluish-green color to them. The Yellow-cedar can also be known as: Alaska cedar, Nootka-cypress, Nootka false cypress, or yellow cypress (Trees of Canada, Farrar, pg.28). It also grows to be up to 24 meters tall and can be 90cm in diameter. Some uses of the trees are boat building, ceremonial masks, paddles and dishes. The bark can also be used for clothing and blankets (http://www.bcadventure.com/adventure/wilderness/forest/yelcedar.htm).Even though the Bristlecone pine and Yellow cedar are from different families (Bristlecone-Pinaceae and Yellow Cedar-Curessaceae) they have similar qualities. Some similarities are that they are both found in west coast areas and they both have a pale bluish color to them. They are also both slow growing species and are used for landscape purposes. These trees are different in that the Yellow cedar can grow up to 24 meters tall where the Bristlecone pine can only grow to be between 6-12 meters tall. Another difference is that the Yellow Cedar requires plenty of moisture to grow where Bristlecone pine can be found in poor, dry soils.