Picture of a carrot plant, which is an example of a biennial plant.

Picture from: http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/7/73/200px-Parsley_Curled.jpg
(Photo added by Amanda Last)
Enhancement: These plants are usually herbaceous. During the first season, food is accumulated, usually in a thickened root (beets, carrots); flowering occurs in the second season. As in annuals, flowering exhausts the food reserves, and the plants die after the seeds mature (Encyclopidia Britannica online). Tamiki N


Dendrochronology: 1928 A. E. DOUGLASS Climatic Cycles & Tree Growth II. 5 We are measuring the lapse of time by means of a slow-geared
clock within the trees. For this study the name ‘dendro-chronology’ has been suggested, or ‘tree-time’. This expression covers all the dating and
historic problems..as well as the study of cyclic variations and the distribution of climatic conditions. 1937 Geogr. Jrnl. LXXXIX. 407 A
dendrochronologist is a man who investigates the climate of the past by measuring the rings of trees. 1937 Proc. Prehist. Soc. III. 321 The modern
ways of pollen-analysis, geochronology and dendrochronology must be applied to settle geologically, once for all, the cultural correlations with Scotland.
1959 Antiquity XXXIII. 238 Undateable except by a rough and ready guesswork calculation from dendrochronological dates.
1969 Nature 15 Nov. 682/1 Radiocarbon measurements carried out on dendrochronologically dated wood samples.(Oxford English Dictionary).
Amanda Last.

Picture illustrating growth rings on a tree which are related to both dendrochronology and dendroclimatology.

Picture from: http://www.idahoforests.org/img/cookie2.gif
(Photo added by Amanda Last)

Dendroclimatology:The study of past climates by the examination of the annual growth rings in (ancient) timber.
1953 E. SCHULMAN in Tree-Ring Bull. XIX. 22 It is important in both dendro-climatology and dendro-archaeology to consider the frequency
of occurrence and areal distribution of non-usable ring series in species commonly suitable for such analysis. 1978 Nature 4 May 40/2 This has been
undertaken to obtain past climate information from the isotope ratios of the hydrogen, oxygen and carbon isotope ratios in the various constituents
of wood by workers in the embryonic science of isotope dendroclimatology. 1981 New Scientist 19 Feb. 462/1 Dendroclimatology is a young but
increasingly important branch of science. Tree rings are, in effect, a ‘diary’ of weather in the past. (Oxford English Dictionary) Amanda Last.
Enhancement: In order to examine the natural growth rings of trees without killing them is to extract a drinking straw sized core sample. This sample is obtained by use of an increment borer. http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/caer/ce/eek/job/images/foresterQuizCoreBorer2.jpg - Morgan Traverse

Dendrology - The study of woody plants. These woody plants usually consist trees shrubs and vines. Trees are a woody plant usually having one central
trunk while shrubs may have many woody stems. This list also includes vines which are woody plants that require the support of another tree or
abiotic structure. Woody plants do not belong to many different families but some non woody plants also belong to these families. Dendrology comes
from the latin name dendro, meaning tree and ology meaning the study of, hence the study of trees. Dendrology usually focuses more towards the species
that are used wider economically. (http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/courses/dendrology/) Mike Tomlinson




Horticulture: The art or science of growing flowers, fruits, or vegetables, etc. (Gage Canadian Dictionary, Pg. 564) Art or science of
cultivating gardens. (Collins English Dictionary, Canadian ed. Pg. 202). Some examples of horticultural work are plant and crop
production, breeding of plants, genetic engineering of plants, and the study of the physiology of plants.

Enhancement:
Latin- Hortus (garden) + cultura (culture)
Horticulture is a subdivision of agriculture dealing in gardening
(Jules. 1979. Horticultural science. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman)

-Danielle Dornik

Enhancment: Even though most practices in Horticuture are very ancient (botany ) recent knowledge about genetics, physiology, biochemistry, ecology, pathology, entomology, molecular biology and soils has been put to much use(plant breeding ). And this has turned horticulture into a higely complex science for some people. VanessaV
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-horticul.html

Enhancement (Kevin Christie)



Butchart Gardens in Victoria BC, an excellent example of horticulture.


Incomplete flower: A flower lacking one or more of the four floral parts needed to be considered complete.
The parts missing could be any of the following four:
-sepals found on the outermost part of the flower and are part of the calyx
-petals which are larger than sepals and part of the corolla
-stamens which produce pollen and form the androecium
-carpels which house the ovules and form the gynoecium.
(http://en.mimi.hu/gardening/incomplete_flower.html & of Plants, 7th edition, Peter H. Raven, Glossary Section)



This figure clearly shows the comparison of a complete flower against the incomplete flower which is missing the stamen.
http://images.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://extension.oregonstate.edu/mg/botany/images/fig20.gif&imgrefurl=http://extension.oregonstate.edu/mg/botany/flower2.html&h=254&w=470&sz=18&hl=en&start=7&um=1&tbnid=hpAAer285RrfTM:&tbnh=70&tbnw=129&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dincomplete%2Bflower%26svnum%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN Enhancement: An example of an incomplete flower is the blue clematis (Clematis occidentalis). This flower has 4 blue sepals and is missing petals. (Plants of Southern Interior British Columbia and the Pacific Northwest. Parish et. al. pg 210)


Photo by Morgan Traverse.
-Morgan Traverse


Lanceolate leaf shape: A unique leaf shape in which the leaf resembles a lance head, and both ends of the leaves taper to form a point most noticeably at the tip.
The general shape of these leaves is a broader base with a thin pointed tip, and they are longer than they are wide in all cases.
(http://www.thefreedictionary.com/lanceolate+leaf The Free Dictionary by Farlex, http://en.mimi.hu/gardening/lanceolate.html from MiMi.hu

This image shows the general shape of a lanceolate leaf.






Retrieved from Leaf Illustrations by Marina Smelik at http://www.smccd.edu/accounts/leddy/lflance.jpg

(http://www.stcharlesparks.com/128/information/horticulture.php)


Leaf Area Index (LAI): the leaf surface area per surface area of land (using the same measurement units). Broad-leaf forests use only one side of the
leaf when calculating the LAI while needle-leaf stands use the entire leaf surface area. However, if the forest is a mix of both broad-leaf and needle-leaf
forest then a combination of the two are used in the calculation of LAI. ("Glossary". Burns, Russel. M., Barbara H. Honkala. October 16th 2007.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_2/glossary/glossary.htm). Steph L


McAbee fossil bed: A fossil bed of Middle Eocene lucustrine (lake-bed) deposits over 56 million years old, located near Cache Creek British Columbia
(Mustoe 2002). The site includes 87 floral taxa, consisting of Gymnosperms (16 separate species, 14 conifers, and 2 Ginkgos) and 67 different angiosperm
genera (Dillhoff et al. 2005). Andrea Chapman
Enhancement:Over 50 plant varieties have been found, including over 40 Broadleaves and 17 Conifer species. Sassafras, katsura and both
Ginkgo varieties are also present. Countless insect species can be found such as tiny flies, wasps, leafhoppers, etc. The fish Eohiodon (Mooneye),
cones, flowers and even a few feathers also can be found.
(http://www.dll-fossils.com/Index.asp) Krista N

Alder Leaf Eohiodon Rosei Fish Fossil Katsura Leaf

Mycorrhizal fungi: Fungi that benefit their host plants by increasing that plants' ability to capture water and essential elements, especially phosphorus.
In return the plants provide the fungi with organic nutrients. Increase in the absorption of zinc, manganese and copper have also been demonstrated through
Mycorrhizal fungi. (Biology of Plants, 7th ed. Peter H. Raven, Pg. 610) Ryan T

Enhancement: This symbiotic relationship is essential for better tree growth. The Mycorhizal fungi lets trees to increase its surface area for absorption of water and nutrients from soil and increase branches and diameter of infected roots. Trees with the Mycorrhizal fungi absorb nutrients faster than that without the fungi ( Dictionary of Natural Resource Management. p.217). Tamiki N

Naval store: Pine tar and pitch were once used to make the seams of boat water tight and to protect ropes on wooden sail boats. These pine products are
referred to as navel store. The chemicals extracted from pine trees are still used today in the manufacture of inks, adhesives, perfumes and other consumer
products. American Heritage Dictionary. The chemical products of pine trees are turpentine, rosin and fatty acids. The origin of this word dates back to
1670 -80. dictionary.com
Henhancment:
The term now applies to the products that come from the pine tree: pine oil, pitch, tar. There are two classifications of these products, those obtained from living trees and those obtained from dead trees. Most naval stores are produced in the south east United States and Southern Europe. Some fo the most largely manufactured things are soap, paint, varnish, shoe polish, lubricants, linoleum, and roofing material. (http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-navalsto.html) VanessaV
Enhancement #2

This picture from 1936 shows how sap was extricated from longleaf pines. (http://www.sherpaguides.com/georgia/fire_forest/cultural_history/index.html)
Liz Foster
NPP (Net Primary Production) - Net primary production is a method used to record and quantify the net absorption of carbon. NPP is the greatest when
the difference between respiration and photosynthisis is the greatest. NPP is an important part of measuring the carbon cycle, to determine how much
carbon is taken up by plant to produce plant growth. If the rate of plant growth is then determined by this process then it can prove to be a very useful
tool in sustainable forest managment. http://www-eosdis.ornl.gov/NPP/npp_home.html (Mike Tomlinson)
Enhancement: (AarenS)

(Derived from notes of John Karakatsoulis slide #39 NRSC 210)


Rachis – The rachis is the central elongated axis of the leaf. In compound leaves the rachis is an extension of the petiole corresponding to the midrib of the complete leaf. (How to Identify Plants, H.D.Harrington, dictionary.com)Jessi.E.W



Root graft: Horticultural - the process of grafting a shoot or a stem of one plant onto a section of root of another. A root graft may also occur as a natural
underground growing together or joining of roots, from two plants. dictionary.com The roots of American Elm ,Ulmus americana, tend to fuse together
(root graft) enabling the spread of Dutch elm disease.
(Kansas State University of Agriculture and Experiment Station Department of Pathology. 2006. google)
Enhancement (Andrea Chapman)
This interconnection produced by a root graft can increase support, stability, and anchorage as well as allow inter-tree translocation of nutrients and water
(Keeley 1988).


Keeley, J.E. 1988. Population variation in root grafting and a hypothesis. Oikos 52: 364-366

Enhancement: This is an example of a root graft from an American Elm. The one pictured is a natrual root graft. -- John
http://images.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://www.oznet.k-state.edu/path-ext/factSheets/Trees/treeimages/elmDED3small.jpg&imgrefurl=
http://www.oznet.k-state.edu/path-ext/factSheets/Trees/Dutch%2520Elm%2520Disease.asp&h=221&w=311&sz=28&hl=en&start=5&tbnid=
qcEIhZKlA6kzSM:&tbnh=83&tbnw=117&prev=/images%3Fq%3Droot%2Bgraft%26gbv%3D2%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den


Schizocarp: A type of dry simple fruit found in plants, most commonly trees. They are winged and vary in length as well as angle between each set of wings.
They consist of two joined carpels which split at maturity to allow better distribution. Upon maturation and the split the individual sides are referred to as mericaps.
This type of fruit is seen frequently in trees from the genus acer.
(Biology of Plants, 7th edition, Peter H. Raven, G-24, http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0007072.html)














This illustration clearly depicts a shizocarp on the branches of a Norway maple of the genus acer.

http://images.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/consumer/fourh/images/picts/AcerPla1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/consumer/fourh/images/Acer__3.htm&h=393&w=450&sz=29&hl=en&start=7&um=1&tbnid=Tfg5c3VO0vfSMM:&tbnh=111&tbnw=127&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dschizocarp%26svnum%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN

Paleobotany:The study of paleobotany involves the investigation of the remains of plants and plant pieces in archaeological sites or other landscapes of the
past. Though plant matter doesn't stay unchanged over periods of centuries or millennia, evidence in the form of floral remains such as charred seeds and
phytoliths does remain and can provide information on prehistoric diet and climate (http://archaeology.about.com/od/pterms/g/paleobotany.htm, K Hirst, para 1).
Paleobotany has had a great effect on todays current understanding of the evolution of the major groups of plants, in particular the interrelationships among the
classes of seed plants.("Botany," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007 http://encarta.msn.com © 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation.) Ryan T
Enhancement(Amanda Last)The branch of botany that deals with extinct and fossil plants.



Perennial: A plant in which the vegetative structures live year after year. (Biology of Plants 6th ed. Peter H. Raven, Pg. 905) A plant lasting through the
years; recurring perpetually. (Collins English Dictionary, Canadian ed. Pg. 309) Perennial plants may be woody plants or herbaceous. Trees are examples
of woody perennial plants. An example of a herbaceous perennial plant is an Echinacea purpurea, or purple coneflower.

Purple Coneflower - Echinacea purpurea
Photo added by Steph L
("Wildflowers and Native Grasses". Prairie Nursery. October 16th 2007.
http://prairienursery.com/store/index.php?main_page=mag_product_seed_info&products_id=91&zenid=
80b0eaf948fbea7a179443be9a19b180 )
Enhancement Latin= per, “through” and annum, “year”. Perennial plants life cycles can be short lived meaning three years or they can be long lived meaning three thousand years. They may also need several years to grow before they are sexually able to reproduce. (Forest Management Workshop Manual , Duane Bristow, 1995)Jessi.E.W
Enhancement: The perennials differ from herbaceous (iris, delphinium), shrubs or trees in which the storage structures are either permanent or are renewed each year (Encyclopedia Britannica online). Tamiki N
Petiole (Stephanie Lauer)– the leaf stalk (Raven, Biology of Plants, pg G-17). The stalk of the leaf that joins the leaf to the node of the stem (Campbell & Reece, Biology 7th ed, Glossary).

Pinna:(plural pinnae) A primary division (or leaflet) of a compound leaf or frond; it may be divided into pinnules. (Raven G-18) Latin for feather, A leaflet or primary division of a pinnately compound leaf.( http://www.thefreedictionary.com/pinna)

image from: http://www.palaeos.com/Plants/Lists/Glossary/Images/PinnaDavallia.gif -VanessaV





Tree: A perennial woody plant generally with a single stem (trunk). (Biology of Plants 6th ed. Peter H. Raven, Pg.912) A large perennial plant with a
woody trunk. (Collins English Dictionary, Canadian ed. Pg. 441-442). An example of a tree is a Larix occidentalis, or a western larch.

The structures of trees include leaves, bark, roots, and the vascular system. Leaves perform two vital functions for trees. They produce
sugars by photosynthesis and they allow for the distribution of water through transpiration. Bark is the protective layer of the tree which
is extremely useful to fend off pests and disease from entering the tree. Roots are made up of both root hairs, lateral roots and the taproot.
The root hairs are used to take up nutrients and water into the tree and the taproot, as well as, lateral roots keep the tree stationary in the
ground. The vascular system transports the nutrients and water that the roots had taken in. The vascular system is composed of the xylem
and the phloem.(http://www.elmcare.com/trees/structures/structure_of_trees.htm)- Daniel Struthers



Urban Forestry
The care and management of urban forests. The control of tree populations in an urban environment. Urban foresters plant and maintain
trees, support appropriate tree and forest preservation, conduct research and promote the many benefits trees provide. Urban forestry is
practiced by many. Some challenges faced by urban forestry include:

• Limited root and canopy space
• poor soil quality
• deficiency f excess of water and light
• heat
• pollution
• mechanical and chemical damage to trees

(Nowak, D. (2000). Tree Species Selection, Design, and Management to Improve Air Quality Construction Technology)
(http://spacing.ca/wire/?p=2367)

Enhancement (Andrea Chapman)Some of the many benefits of this practice include energy and water conservation, as well as increased inner city wildlife, scenery, and noise buffer values. Two main benefits are the potential to reduce the heating effect caused by urban areas, and the possibility of a heightened psychological effect on humans (Bradley 1995).

Bradley G.A. 1995. Urban forest landscapes: integrating multidisciplinary perspectives. University of Washington Press. Pg 3-5 URL http://books.google.ca/books?id=PfxEX4UkTbEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=urban+forestry#PPA5,M1
Enhancement: Thus urban forests have a substantial monetary benefit to the municipalities, provincial and federal governments (storm water attenuation, air quality mitigation, tourism, health care costs, etc.), to residents (property value, energy conservation, etc.) and business (tree care companies, nursery industry, aesthetics of retail areas). Internationally, many cities are recognizing that their urban forests will play an important role in their competitiveness to attract business and industry (Tree Canada). http://www.treecanada.ca/programs/urbanforestry/benefits.htm Tamiki N

_________________________________________________________________________________
COMPARE AND CONTRAST
Please put your compare and contrast entries below here.
Actinomorphic vs. Zygomorphic Actinomorphic (= regular) flowers are capable of being divided into equal halves along any diameter. An example of this kind of flower is a sun flower. Zygomorphic flowers (= irregular) flowers that are bilaterally symmetrical. A zygomorphic flower can be divided into equal halves along only one line. The flower consists of five petals a banner (one petal), a wings (two petals) and keel (two fused petals). The fruit will develop into a pod. Actinomorphic and zygomorphic are both terms that describe flowers. (dictionary.com, www.wildflower-and-weeds.com) Jessi.E.W


Berry and Pome Both of these structures include seeds, are composed of a flesh like substance and are found on plants. They offer a means of reproduction and a way to increase dispersal.
They can also be relatively close in size depending on the species used in comparison.


Berries are the most common type of fleshy fruit found in plant types. They are composed of one or several carpels found encased in a thin coating.
The seeds of berries are embedded in the flesh of the ovaries, and the ovary of berry producing flowers are superior.
(information from Berry definition on Wikipedia at the address http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berry)


A pome is an accessory fruit which is composed of five or more carpels. The mesocarp of this fruit is generally fleshy and the seed is enclosed by a leathery casing formed by the endocarp.
The ovary of this kind of fruit is inferior.
(information from Pome definition on Wikipedia at the address http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pome)
by Conyr Aird

Enhancement to Berry/Pome (Caitlin Deas)
This is a typical example of a pome. (Iowa State University Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology)
http://www.eeob.iastate.edu/classes/bio366/terminology/fruit/images/apple-pome.jpg

This is a typical example of a berry-the blueberry. (Essential Oil.in) http://www.essentialoil.in/images/blue-berry.jpg



Berry/Schizocarp Nicole L
Berry is a simple fleshy fruit that includes a fleshy ovary wall and one or more carpels and seeds; examples are the fruit of grapes, tomatoes, and bananas (Biology of plants, 7th edition, Raven, p G-3) Schizocarp is a dry simple fruit with two or more united carpels that split apart at maturity (Biology of Plants, 7th edition, Raven, p G-21) Both are a form of fruit on angiosperm trees

http://www.hort.uconn.edu/plants/campus/uconn/dec/walk8/five/apla.jpg
http://www.studioandree.com/images/thumbArbutusFruit.gif

Biennial Plants and Perennial Plants (Jessica Wrench)
A Perennial is a plant in which the vegetative structures live year after year. (Biology of Plants 7th ed. Peter H. Raven, Pg. G-17)
A Biennial is a plant that normally requires two growing seasons to complete its life cycle, flowering and fruiting in its second year.
(Biology of Plants 7th ed. Peter H. Raven, Pg. G-3)

Perennial and biennial plants are similar in that they are both classified as plants and share similar stages in their life cycles. The
difference is that a perennial’s life cycle continues on much longer than the two year life cycle of a biennial plant.Perennial plants include
all trees and shrubs as well as some herbaceous plants that return to ground structures, such as bulbs, in the colder seasons. On the other
hand, biennials include only herbaceous plants. Another difference is that biennials only flower once in their lifetime where as perennials
will flower once every year when they reach maturity.

An Annual is a plant which completes its entire life cycle (growth, flowering and death) in a single growing season. Summer annuals
cycle between spring and fall while winter annuals being germination in the fall and over winter and being their lifecycles in the following
spring and continuing until fall. (Weed Control Glossary. OMAFRA Staff, Novemeber 1999.
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/pub75/appendx_b.htm) Steph L

Annual plants are also similar to perennial and biennial plants in the sense that they too are a herbaceous plant and also have the same
life cycle but the difference in an annual plant is that an annual only lives for one growing season. In this time, the plant first spends a
series of a few weeks or months accumulating food materials for rapid growth. The plant then matures based on environmental factors
and the plant beings to start producing flowers, fruits or seeds. This production of flowers, fruits or seeds, phyisically drains the plant and
along with other factors beings the process of the end of the plants life cycle. ( "life span." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. October 16th 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-63859/life-span#526769.hook ) Steph L

Biomass/NPP: (Jackie Taylor)
Biomass: Is the total dry weight of all organisms in a particular population, sample, or area. NPP: Net primary production is the rate at which new biomass occurs in an ecosystem.
References: Biology of Plants, 7th edition, Peter H. Raven, Glossary pg. G-3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_production

Dendroclimatology /Dendrochronology: Dendroclimatology is the modelling of tree growth variations in relation to weather (Visser and Molenaar 1988).
It can be used to understand how historic climate activities have affected trees, by separating human related and natural climate change events
(Lara et al. 2002). Dendrochronology is a science that analyzes tree rings for various reasons, including dating archaeological and historical structures,
as well as mapping past climates (Cook 1990). Dendroclimatology appears to be a branch of Dendrochronology. Dendrochronology analyzes tree rings
(growth patterns) for reasons ranging from understanding slope movement activities (Braam 1987) to mapping past climates. Where Dendroclimatology
solely focuses only on how climactic changes affected growth patterns. Even though both subjects focus on analyzing growth rings, Dendroclimatology
is more focused on the climate aspect. Andrea Chapman




ANGIOSPERM/ GYMNOSPERM
Angiosperms are flowering plants. Angiosperms are the biggest group in the plant kingdom. They have true roots, stems, leaves and flowers. They also
have seeds.The seeds are formed when an egg or ovule is fertilized by pollen in the ovary. The ovary is within a flower. The flower contains the male
and/or female parts of the plant. Fruits are frequently produced from these ripened ovaries. Angiosperms are more highly evolved that the algae, mosses,
fungi and ferns. Their advanced structures allow angiosperms to thrive on land. They have roots that hold the plant in place and take in needed minerals
and water. They have leaves that are the major food makes for the plant. They have stems that hold the plants up and move the nutrients and water about
the plant. http://www.mcwdn.org/Plants/Angiosperm.html Gymnosperms are woody plants that produce seeds, but, unlike the flowering plants (angiosperms),
the seeds are not enclosed inside an ovary. This means that instead of developing inside a fruit, such as a berry or acorn, gymnosperm seeds are more
exposed. Often they are housed in somewhat open structures called cones. (The seeds, or the structures that contain them, sometimes appear quite similar
to fruits, though, as is the case with ginkgo and juniper trees.)http://www.ibiblio.org/pic/GymnospKey/gymnosperm_description.html.(Summary)The main
difference between the Gymnosperm and the Angiosperm is the fact that the Angiosperms are flowering plants that enclose the seed inside the ovary
producing fruit when ripe The seeds are more protected and developed for life on land. The Gymnosperm seeds are more exposed to the elements and
are often protected in a woody cone. (RSwite)

Braam R.R., Weiss E.E.J., and Burrough P.A. 1987. Spatial and temporal analysis of mass movement using dendrochronology. Elsevier. URL http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/fysgeo/2006-1212-202044/UUindex.html

Cook E. 1990. Methods of dendrochronology. Springer. Preface 1. URL http://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=zr8Ucld6FYcC&oi=fnd&pg=PP9&dq=dendrochronology&ots=ZfIg2tNNLJ&sig=WHfgjsR1EI0jmGnkBT2Eu0rogmc#PPP9,M1

Lara A., Aravena J.C., Villalba R., Wolodarsky-Franke A., Luckman B. and Wilson J. 2001. Dendroclimatology of high-elevation Nothofagus pumilio forests at their
northern distribution limit in the central Andes of Chile. Can. J. For. Res. 31: 925-936

Visser H. and Molenaar J. 1988. Kalman filter analysis in dendroclimatology. Biometrics 44: 929-940

Dendrology/Horticulture: Dendrology is a branch of botany that focuses on the study of woody plants, specifically trees (http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/Dendrology) whereas horticulture is the science of cultivating plants, such as trees, for the purpose of ornamentation or agriculture (http://www.reference.com/search?q=horticulture). - Tori Waites

Horticulture/Urban Forestry (Sarah Slater): Horticulture is the science of producing and managing garden plants. Examples of these types of plants are fruits, vegetables, and decorative plants. Urban forestry is the science of managing trees in urban areas, whether they grow naturally in the area, or were planted ornamentally. Urban forestry is a way to improve the lives of people who live, work or spend large amounts of time in big cities. These two terms are similar in the fact they involve growth, management, humans and are considered to be a science. Ornamental gardens, gardens that produce food as well as trees in big cities all improve our lives, in giving us oxygen and creating natural beauty where we have destroyed it. The terms differ because they refer to very different subjects. Trees are very tall and need more space to grow. Trees are perennial, when most commonly garden plants are annual, with some exceptions of course.
Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences. Burley, Evans, Youngquist. Vol. 1, pg. 471
Southern Methodist University <http://environmentalprograms.net/guidance/horticulture/>
Tree Canada <http://www.treecanada.ca/programs/urbanforestry/index.htm>



Horticulture/ Tree: A tree is a large wood bodied perennial plant that has bark, a stem, and leaves. Trees are very large at maturity. Horticulture is the science of producing and taking care of these plants. Trees grow naturally in almost every climate, but with the increasing human encroachment with our cities and our cattle, the trees have taken a beating. The worldwide populations of trees are dwindeling and it is up to people like horticultursts to make sure that trees are taken care of. People in horticulture make plans to increase and protect trees, and then they cary out these plans to make sure that there are sufficient amounts of nutrients in the soil and that the trees are sufficently provided for so they can thrive. Of course horticultue is about other plants besides trees also. Liz Foster (Collins English Dictonary, Canadian edition, page 441, 442), http://www.ahs.org/, http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861618832/horticulture.html
Tree Maintenance

Leaf Area Index(LAI)/Net Primary Production(NPP)
Leaf Area Index(LAI)- Leaf area per surface area of land. The ratio of leaf area to land area. "Glossary". Burns, Russel. M., Barbara H. Honkala. October 16th 2007
Net Primary Production(NPP)- Method used to record and quantify the net absorbtion of Carbon. It is an important part of measuring the carbon cycle how much carbon is taken up to produce plant growth.http://www-eosdis.ornl.gov/NPP/npp_home.html
Both of these are useful tools in measuring forest growth
Mycorrhizal Fungi / Root graft: Root Grafts are the fusing together of root systems between alike plants for support, anchorage or transfer of nutrients. Mycorrhizal Fungi is a type of fungi that grows on or around the roots of plants connecting them to one another allowing transfer of nutrients from one plant to another. So, though both share the same purpose in inter-plant transduction of nutrients, it is the method in which the nutrients are passed from one tree to the next that sets the two apart. Root Grafts transfer directly from the root of one plant to the root of another, while with Mycorrhizal fungi, it is the fungi itself act as a bridge between the two plants.


http://www.pbase.com/victorengel/image/75217392

McAbee Fossil Field/ Paleobotany: Paleobotany is the study of fossilized plants found throughout the world. These fossils provide great insight into the past and to what the world would have been like millions and millions of years ago. One such example of this is the McAbee fossil beds which are located just 13 km east of Cache Creek, They are composed of shallow lake sediments. These fossil beds have been dated to the Eocene period, about 50.2 million years ago. To date Over 50 plant species have been found here including over 40 broadleafs and 17 conifers. Of these, there are several that are no longer indigenous to the area, the sassafras and the Ginkgo trees for example. This is very important for us to know what the climate was like here in the past. There have also been many fossils of insects and fish found. The plant fossils and pollen in the sediment point to a forested landscape dominated by elm, birch and beech trees, with pines and cypress also present. Liz Foster
http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/paleobotany/paleobotanylinks.htm: http://www.totabc.com/trellis/ecotours_outfitters/10/0/599
Fossil Cone http://www.evolvingearth.org/images/mcabeecone.jpg
Naturalized/Hybrid (Kevin Christie)
Naturalized: Of a plant or animal: having become established though not native; introduced, but growing or living and reproducing as if native.
1796 W. WITHERING Arrangem. Brit. Plants II. 336 See E. bot. 63, where it is first adopted as a naturalized plant. 1811 1st Rep. Merino Soc. 52 This kind cannot be perfectly produced but by naturalized sheep of the pure race. 1859 C. DARWIN Origin of Species iv. 115 These naturalised plants are of a highly diversified nature. 1875 Encycl. Brit. I. 84/1 A naturalised animal or plant..must be able to withstand all the vicissitudes of the seasons in its new home. 1926 W. FAWCETT & A. B. RENDLE Flora of Jamaica V. 142 Musk Ochra, Musk Seed, Wild Ochra. Naturalized and cultivated. 1960 H. S. ZIM Guide to Everglades 54 Key lime, a small, spiny naturalized citrus, is common on the Keys. 1991 Garden Jan. 21 The sedums spectabile, acre (a nasty, spreading, naturalised plant), kamtschaticum, and spurium are the common favourites. (Oxford English Dictionary Online) Hybrid: The offspring of two plants of different species, or (less strictly) varieties; a half-breed, cross-breed, or mongrel.
reciprocal hybrids, hybrids produced from the same two species A and B, where in the one case A is male and B female, in the other B is male and A female; e.g. the mule and the hinny. [1788 J. LEE Introd. Bot. (ed. 4) Gloss., Hybrida, a Bastard, a monstrous Production of two Plants of different Species.] 1828 [see a]. 1845 LINDLEY Sch. Bot. x. (1858) 167 No hybrids but such as are of a woody perennial character can be perpetuated with certainty. 1846 J. BAXTER Libr. Pract. Agric. (ed. 4) II. 358 Swedes are generally sown first. Hybrids..are usually sown next, and white turnips the last. 1867 DARWIN in Life & Lett. (1887) III. 306 The common Oxlip found everywhere..in England, is certainly a hybrid between the primrose and cowslip. (Oxford English Dictionary Online)


Paleobotany/Dendrochronology (Caitlin Deas) Both paleobotany and dendrochronology use ancient plant structures to determine past events. Paleobotany uses fossilized plants, carbon-dating them to determine when these plants lived. This information can be used to deduce what type of plants and animals lived at that time, and therefore what different things happened (such as the plant species supported a herbivore population which in turn supported a human population). Dendrochronology uses tree rings (from dead or alive trees) to determine the time that historical events occurred. Taking a core sample and analyzing it, without adversely affecting the tree, can date a living tree. Tree rings grow at a known rate, so they are a good measurement of time when compared to a structure or artifact that they are near or in. For instance, the number of tree rings added to a tree after a name is carved into the trunk tells us how long ago the name was carved. (Biology of Plants, 7th edition, Peter H. Raven, 9, 596; Cornell Tree-Ring Laboratory http://dendro.cornell.edu/whatisdendro.php)

The rings in this tree are used to determine when forest fires occurred. (SAIMA Unit of the Savonlinna Department of Teacher Education)http://sokl.joensuu.fi/saima/saimapictures/kiekkoisov.jpg


This fossil is an example of paleobotany. The plant structures shown indicate what type of species could have lived at that time.(University of California Museum of Paleontology) http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/IB181/VPL/Pres/PresP/Pres2.jpeg (Caitlin Deas)
Prickle and Thorn: By Conyr A. Both of these terms refer to a pointed structure found along the outer surface of a plants structure specifically the epidermis. T hey are a form of defense for the plant protecting it from possible predators by causing mild irritation or pain in its attacker. Thorns specifically are modified bracts found within the axil of the leaf or terminating the twig. Thorns are generally larger than prickles and denser. (Wikipedia thorn definition http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorn) See image:


(image from Daniel wiener webpage at http://www.danielwiener.com/daniel/tips/archives/thorns.jpg)
Prickles are defined as a sharp slender out growth on the epidermis of a plant. They can be found anywhere along the plants surface including the leaves and twigs. They consist of several layers but contain no venation. (biology online at http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Prickles) See image:
(image from Invasive Plants of the Eastern United States web page at http://www.invasive.org/eastern/biocontrol/23SodaApple.html)

Annual/ Biennial: In the case of annual plants the life cycle is completed in one year. The formation if flowers, fruits, and seeds rapidly decrease the food stores of the plant lead to the vegetative portion of the plants dieing. While biennial (prefix “bi” meaning two) plants takes two years (or growing seasons) to complete the life cycle where it will vegetate from a seed one year , then produces flowers and perishes the year after. Examples of some biennials are beets and carrots although they are usually harvested during the first year. Scott Horley.